Women’s Health Risks
Associated with Orthodox Medicine - Part II
Breast-feeding Versus Formula Feeding
Nearly 20 studies conducted
since the late 1980s have
identified negative effects of
formula feeding or positive
effects of breast-feeding. In
this body of research, breastfeeding
emerges as a clear
winner over formula feeding.
The World Health Organization helps
protect breast-feeding with a code
that regulates the marketing of milk
substitutes. As reported in the British
Medical Journal, however, widespread
violations of the code have been
reported by several health agencies.
The author notes that the resulting
use of commercial preparations is
associated with much harm. Bottlefed
babies have significantly higher
rates of childhood diseases and
impaired cognitive development;
they also have a higher risk of
cardiovascular diseases as adults.12
Many of the studies that follow
bear out this potential for harm. The
research shows that bottle-fed babies
have an increased risk of neurological
dysfunction, diarrhea, middle ear
infections, and respiratory infections,
as well as allergic disorders, cardiovascular
disease, and diabetes later
in life.13-20
On a positive note, other studies
show that breast-fed infants not
only have lower rates of infection and
gastrointestinal illnesses21-22 but also
demonstrate higher (and long-lasting)
levels of cognitive development.
A recent study in Pediatrics states
that children who were breast-fed
as infants had significantly higher IQs
and scholastic performances at every
point they were tested—from first
grade through high school.23
The results of this study show that
women who receive informational
material publicizing infant formulas
at their first prenatal visit are almost
6 times as likely to interrupt breastfeeding
before leaving the hospital,
compared to women who receive
research material promoting the
benefits of breast-feeding. Women
exposed to company-produced
advertisement material are also
almost twice as likely to cease breastfeeding
before 2 weeks compared to
those who receive research material.
Babies who are breast-fed have
improved health outcomes such as
lower rates of infections, allergies
and chronic diseases, compared
to formula-fed babies. The authors
emphasize that information material
produced by formula manufacturers
should not appear in doctors’ offices,
prenatal clinics and hospitals, especially
considering that the World
Health Organization’s code regulating
marketing of milk formulas “prohibits
the distribution of free samples,
the promotion of formula in health
care facilities, and the use of pictures
idealizing artificial feeding.”
—Howard C, Howard F, Lawrence R,
Andresen E, DeBlieck E, Weitzman M,
Office prenatal formula advertising
and its effect on breast-feeding patterns.
Obstet Gynecol 2000 Feb;
95(2):296-303.
The results of this study show that
women who, upon delivery, received
a hospital discharge package
Women’s Health Risks
Associated with Orthodox Medicine - Part II
by Gary Null, Ph.D.,
Debora Rasio, M.D.,
and Martin Feldman, M.D. containing a manual breast pump,
continued to breast-feed their baby
significantly longer (4.2 weeks) than
women who received a hospital discharge
package containing an infant
formula (2.8 weeks). Furthermore,
women who felt that relief from nighttime
feeding was important, were
significantly more likely to breast-feed
for more than 8 weeks if they received
in the package the manual breast
pump instead of the infant formula.
—Dungy CI, Christensen-Szalanski J,
Losch M, Russell D, Effect of discharge
samples on duration of breast-feeding.
Pediatrics 1992 Aug; 90 (2 Pt 1)
:233-7.
This study documented the extent
of violation of the World Health
Organization’s code regulating the
marketing of milk substitutes worldwide.
Marketing efforts of milk substitutes’
manufacturers have altered
the perception of breast-feeding in
women, and distribution of free samples
of milk formulas and of advertisement
material has resulted in a
significant number of women opting
for using commercial preparations
rather than breast-feeding. This
practice, however, is associated with
significant harm, in that babies who
have been bottle-fed have significantly
higher rates of childhood diseases,
impaired cognitive development, and
higher risk of
cardiovascular
diseases in
adulthood.
The most devastating
consequences
of
bottle-feeding
occur in the
developing
countries,
where
neonates and
infants are
particularly at
risk of contracting infectious diseases
from contaminated water added to
the formula. As reported in an editorial
published in the same issue of the
BMJ (BMJ 1998;316:1103-1104), the
World Health Organization estimated
that 1.5 million deaths could be prevented
every year if women would
breast-feed rather than bottle-feed
their babies. To ensure protection
of breast-feeding the WHO developed
a regulative code that prohibits the
distribution of free samples of milk
formulas to women or health facilities
(except for professional research).
In addition, the code forbids the provision
of incentives to health care workers,
which has been associated with
an increased likelihood of promotion
of a particular product and with the
lack of support of breast-feeding.
The article highlights how several
agencies have reported widespread
violations of the code, but the companies
have consistently rejected any
allegation as unreliable and distorted
by activists. This study monitored
compliance to the WHO code by conducting
a systematic, random survey
of women and health care professionals
in one city in each of Bangladesh,
Poland, South Africa, and Thailand.
Women were asked if they had been
given free samples of milk substitutes,
bottles and teats, while they
were pregnant or in the six months
after delivery. In addition, three
health care workers in each facility
were interviewed to assess whether
the facility had received free samples
of milk substitutes or gifts from companies
involved in their production
or distribution. The results of the
survey showed that overall, 10% of
all women (range 0-26%) and 25%
of all health care facilities (range
8-50%) interviewed had been given
free samples of milk, bottle, or teats
for research purpose. Thirty percent of
health facilities had received violating
information and 11% of health care
professionals had received gifts.
These findings, which are likely
underestimating the real dimension
of the problem in the majority of
the countries, point to the extent of
violation of the WHO code by breast
milk substitutes’ manufacturers. The
consequences of these violations in
terms of increased mortality and loss
of health are staggering.
—Taylor A, Violations of the international
code of marketing of breast
milk substitutes: prevalence in four
countries. BMJ 1998; 316:1117-1122 (11
April).
This article reports on the findings
of an external audit demonstrating
multiple violations of the World
Health Organization’s code of marketing
of breast milk substitutes in
Pakistan perpetrated by Nestlé. The
discovery came after a former Nestlé
employee exposed internal documents
demonstrating that the company
offered gifts to doctors as a recompense
for promoting its products. In
addition, the company was charged
with offering free infant formulas to
mothers and health care professionals,
practices that are forbidden
under the code’s requirements. —Yamey G, Nestlé violates international
marketing code, says audit.
News. BMJ 2000; 321:8 (1 July).
The results of this study show that
bottle-fed infants have a 50%
increased risk of neurological dysfunction,
compared to breast-fed
infants. The authors propose that
the presence of longer-chain polyunsaturated
fatty acids, found in breast
milk but not in most formula-milks,
may be a factor involved in the excess
risk, since these fatty acids play a
vital role in brain development.
—Lanting CI, Fidler V, Huisman M,
Touwen BC, Boersma ER, Neurological
differences between 9-year-old children
fed breast-milk or formula-milk
as babies. Lancet 1994 Nov 12;
344(8933):1319-22.
The results of this meta-analysis,
conducted on 20 previously published
studies, show that breast-fed infants
have significantly higher levels of
cognitive development, compared
to formula-fed infants. The differences
were observed at 6-23 months and
remained thereafter. The longer the
duration of breast-feeding, the
stronger the benefits observed on
cognitive development. Premature
children were found to benefit the
most from breast-feeding.
—Anderson JW, Johnstone BM,
Remley DT, Breast-feeding and cognitive
development: a meta-analysis.
Am J Clin Nutr 1999 Oct; 70(4):525-35.
This study evaluated cognitive development
in children aged 2 through 5
fed by different modes when infants.
Breast-fed children were found to
score significantly higher in developmental
tests at all time points, compared
to bottle-fed children.
—Rogan WJ, Gladen BC, Breast-feeding
and cognitive development. Early
Hum Dev 1993 Jan; 31(3):181-93.
The results of this study show that the
improved performances in cognitive
tests observed in breast- versus bottle-
fed children early in life are maintained
throughout childhood and
young adulthood. Children who had
been breast-fed as infants had significantly
higher intelligence quotients
and scholastic performances at all
points tested, from first grade through
high school. The longer the children
were breast-fed, the better their cognitive
development and academic performances
into early adulthood.
—Horwood LJ, Fergusson DM,
Breastfeeding and later cognitive
and academic outcomes. Pediatrics
1998 Jan; 101(1):E9.
The results of this study show that
infants aged 0 to 3 months who are
breast-fed have significantly lower
rates of infections and hospitalization
compared to children who are
bottle-fed.
—Fallot ME, Boyd JL 3d, Oski FA,
Breast-feeding reduces incidence
of hospital admissions for infection
in infants. Pediatrics 1980 Jun;
65(6):1121-4.
The results of this study show that
infants who have been breast-fed for
at least 13 weeks have significantly
lower rates of gastrointestinal illnesses
and hospitalizations during the
first year of their life, compared to
those who have been bottle-fed from
birth. Breast-feeding for less than 13
weeks is not associated with reduction
of gastrointestinal disease.
—Howie PW, Forsyth JS, Ogston SA,
Clark A, Florey CD, Protective effect of
breast feeding against infection. BMJ
1990 Jan 6; 300(6716):11-6.
The results of this study, conducted
on 153 Peruvian newborns, show that
during the first 6 months of their life
infants who received other liquids in
addition to breast milk had a 2-fold
increased incidence of diarrheal
disease, compared to those who
received exclusively breast-milk.
The incidence of diarrheal disease
in infants in whom breast-feeding
was discontinued during their first
6 months of life was 4 times higher
than that of exclusively breast-fed
infants. Rates of upper and lower
respiratory infections and of skin
infections were also lower in exclusively
versus partially breast-fed
infants.
—Brown KH, Black RE, Lopez
de Romana G, Creed de
Kanashiro H, Infant-feeding
practices and their relationship
with diarrheal and other
diseases in Huascar (Lima),
Peru. Pediatrics 1989 Jan;
83(1):31-40.
The results of this study show that
children who have been exclusively
bottle-fed have an 80% increased
risk of developing diarrhea and a 70%
increased risk of developing middle
ear infections, compared to those
who have been exclusively breast-fed.
—Scariati PD, Grummer-Strawn LM,
Fein SB, A longitudinal analysis of
infant morbidity and the extent of
breastfeeding in the United States.
Pediatrics 1997 Jun; 99(6):E5.
The results of this study, conducted
on 1,058 Chinese infants, show that
those who were exclusively bottle-fed
were twice as likely to be hospitalized
for respiratory infections during their
first 18 months of life, compared
to those who were partially or exclusively
breast fed.
—Chen Y, Yu SZ, Li WX, Artificial feeding
and hospitalization in the first 18
months of life. Pediatrics 1988 Jan;
81(1):58-62. The results of this study, conducted
on 152 infants aged 1 month to 1
year admitted to a Brazilian hospital
for pneumonia and 2,391 matched
controls, show that those who have
been exclusively bottle-fed had an
overall 17-fold increased risk of being
hospitalized for this complication,
compared to those who have been
exclusively breast-fed. The risk
was particularly high for children
younger than 3 months, for whom
bottle-feeding was associated with a
61-fold increased risk of pneumonia,
and decreased down to 10 for older
children. Strikingly, the study also
found that the addition of solid foods
to the diet of infants younger than 3
months of age was associated with a
175-folds increased risk of hospitalization
for pneumonia, down to a 13-
folds increase in children of all ages.
—Cesar JA, Victora CG, Barros FC,
Santos IS, Flores JA, Impact of breast
feeding on admission for pneumonia
during postneonatal period in Brazil:
nested case-control study. BMJ 1999
May 15; 318(7194):1316-20.
The results of this study show that
children who have been partially or
exclusively bottle-fed during the first
15 weeks of life have an almost 2-fold
higher risk of developing respiratory
illness later in childhood, compared
to those who have been exclusively
breast-fed. Exclusive bottle-feeding
was also associated with significantly
higher levels of blood pressure later
in childhood, compared to breastfeeding.
In addition, the introduction
of solid foods to the diet of infants
younger than 15 weeks was found
to be associated with an over 2-fold
higher risk of wheeze during childhood,
and with significantly increased
percentage body weight and fat.
—Wilson AC, Forsyth JS, Greene SA,
Irvine L, Hau C, Howie PW, Relation of
infant diet to childhood health: seven
year follow up of cohort of children in
Dundee infant feeding study. BMJ
1998 Jan 3; 316(7124):21-5.
The results of this study show that
the introduction of milk formulas to
the diet of infants younger than 4
months is associated with a significantly
higher risk of developing asthma
and allergic disorders later in life.
In particular, children who had been
fed non-breast milk before 4 months
of age were found to have a 25%
higher risk of developing asthma and
a 30% higher risk of having a positive
skin prick test, compared to those
who had been exclusively breast-fed.
—Oddy WH, Holt PG, Sly PD, Read
AW, Landau LI, Stanley FJ, Kendall
GE, Burton PR, Association between
breast feeding and asthma in 6 year
old children: findings of a prospective
birth cohort study. BMJ 1999 Sep 25;
319(7213):815-9.
The results of this study show that
individuals who have been bottle-fed
when they were babies have more risk
factors for cardiovascular disease and
diabetes later in adulthood, compared
to those who have been breast-fed.
The study was conducted on 625
adults born in Amsterdam between
1943 and 1947. Those who had been
bottle-fed had higher plasma glucose
concentration after a glucose load
test and higher cholesterol levels,
compared to those who had been
breast-fed. These data support previous
research indicating an increased
risk of cardiovascular diseases associated
with bottle-feeding.
—Ravelli AC, van der Meulen JH,
Osmond C, Barker DJ, Bleker OP,
Infant feeding and adult glucose
tolerance, lipid profile, blood
pressure, and obesity. Arch Dis Child
2000 Mar; 82(3):248-52.
The results of this study show that
children who have received cow’s
milk-containing formulas when they
were younger than 3 months have
a 52% increased risk of developing
insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
(IDDM or Type 1 diabetes), compared
to those who have been exclusively
breast-fed. Duration of exclusive
breast-feeding for 3 months or longer
was found to be associated with a
44% reduced risk of Type 1 diabetes.
—Verge CF, Howard NJ, Irwig L,
Simpson JM, Mackerras D, Silink M,
Environmental factors in childhood
IDDM. A population-based, case-control
study. Diabetes Care 1994 Dec;
17(12):1381-9.
The results of this study show that
the introduction of supplementary
infant formulas into the diet of
infants younger than 3 months is
associated with a 52% higher risk
of developing Type 1 diabetes later
in life. Exclusive breast-feeding
during the first 2 months of life, on
the other hand, is protective, and is
associated with a 40% lower risk of
developing diabetes.
—Virtanen SM, Rasanen L, Aro A,
Ylonen K, Lounamaa R, Tuomilehto
J, Akerblom HK, Feeding in infancy
and the risk of type 1 diabetes mellitus
in Finnish children. The ‘Childhood
Diabetes in Finland’ Study Group.
Diabet Med 1992 Nov; 9(9):815-9.
The results of this study show that
the introduction of supplementary
milk feeding to the diet of infants
younger than 3 months is associated
with a 53% higher risk of developing
Type 1 diabetes, compared to the
introduction of milk formulas after
the age of 3 months.
—Hypponen E, Kenward MG, Virtanen
SM, Piitulainen A, Virta-Autio P, et
al., Infant feeding, early weight gain,
and risk of type 1 diabetes. Childhood
Diabetes in Finland (DiMe) Study
Group. Diabetes Care 1999 Dec;
22(12):1961-5.
Associated with Orthodox Medicine - Part II
Breast-feeding Versus Formula Feeding
Nearly 20 studies conducted
since the late 1980s have
identified negative effects of
formula feeding or positive
effects of breast-feeding. In
this body of research, breastfeeding
emerges as a clear
winner over formula feeding.
The World Health Organization helps
protect breast-feeding with a code
that regulates the marketing of milk
substitutes. As reported in the British
Medical Journal, however, widespread
violations of the code have been
reported by several health agencies.
The author notes that the resulting
use of commercial preparations is
associated with much harm. Bottlefed
babies have significantly higher
rates of childhood diseases and
impaired cognitive development;
they also have a higher risk of
cardiovascular diseases as adults.12
Many of the studies that follow
bear out this potential for harm. The
research shows that bottle-fed babies
have an increased risk of neurological
dysfunction, diarrhea, middle ear
infections, and respiratory infections,
as well as allergic disorders, cardiovascular
disease, and diabetes later
in life.13-20
On a positive note, other studies
show that breast-fed infants not
only have lower rates of infection and
gastrointestinal illnesses21-22 but also
demonstrate higher (and long-lasting)
levels of cognitive development.
A recent study in Pediatrics states
that children who were breast-fed
as infants had significantly higher IQs
and scholastic performances at every
point they were tested—from first
grade through high school.23
The results of this study show that
women who receive informational
material publicizing infant formulas
at their first prenatal visit are almost
6 times as likely to interrupt breastfeeding
before leaving the hospital,
compared to women who receive
research material promoting the
benefits of breast-feeding. Women
exposed to company-produced
advertisement material are also
almost twice as likely to cease breastfeeding
before 2 weeks compared to
those who receive research material.
Babies who are breast-fed have
improved health outcomes such as
lower rates of infections, allergies
and chronic diseases, compared
to formula-fed babies. The authors
emphasize that information material
produced by formula manufacturers
should not appear in doctors’ offices,
prenatal clinics and hospitals, especially
considering that the World
Health Organization’s code regulating
marketing of milk formulas “prohibits
the distribution of free samples,
the promotion of formula in health
care facilities, and the use of pictures
idealizing artificial feeding.”
—Howard C, Howard F, Lawrence R,
Andresen E, DeBlieck E, Weitzman M,
Office prenatal formula advertising
and its effect on breast-feeding patterns.
Obstet Gynecol 2000 Feb;
95(2):296-303.
The results of this study show that
women who, upon delivery, received
a hospital discharge package
Women’s Health Risks
Associated with Orthodox Medicine - Part II
by Gary Null, Ph.D.,
Debora Rasio, M.D.,
and Martin Feldman, M.D. containing a manual breast pump,
continued to breast-feed their baby
significantly longer (4.2 weeks) than
women who received a hospital discharge
package containing an infant
formula (2.8 weeks). Furthermore,
women who felt that relief from nighttime
feeding was important, were
significantly more likely to breast-feed
for more than 8 weeks if they received
in the package the manual breast
pump instead of the infant formula.
—Dungy CI, Christensen-Szalanski J,
Losch M, Russell D, Effect of discharge
samples on duration of breast-feeding.
Pediatrics 1992 Aug; 90 (2 Pt 1)
:233-7.
This study documented the extent
of violation of the World Health
Organization’s code regulating the
marketing of milk substitutes worldwide.
Marketing efforts of milk substitutes’
manufacturers have altered
the perception of breast-feeding in
women, and distribution of free samples
of milk formulas and of advertisement
material has resulted in a
significant number of women opting
for using commercial preparations
rather than breast-feeding. This
practice, however, is associated with
significant harm, in that babies who
have been bottle-fed have significantly
higher rates of childhood diseases,
impaired cognitive development, and
higher risk of
cardiovascular
diseases in
adulthood.
The most devastating
consequences
of
bottle-feeding
occur in the
developing
countries,
where
neonates and
infants are
particularly at
risk of contracting infectious diseases
from contaminated water added to
the formula. As reported in an editorial
published in the same issue of the
BMJ (BMJ 1998;316:1103-1104), the
World Health Organization estimated
that 1.5 million deaths could be prevented
every year if women would
breast-feed rather than bottle-feed
their babies. To ensure protection
of breast-feeding the WHO developed
a regulative code that prohibits the
distribution of free samples of milk
formulas to women or health facilities
(except for professional research).
In addition, the code forbids the provision
of incentives to health care workers,
which has been associated with
an increased likelihood of promotion
of a particular product and with the
lack of support of breast-feeding.
The article highlights how several
agencies have reported widespread
violations of the code, but the companies
have consistently rejected any
allegation as unreliable and distorted
by activists. This study monitored
compliance to the WHO code by conducting
a systematic, random survey
of women and health care professionals
in one city in each of Bangladesh,
Poland, South Africa, and Thailand.
Women were asked if they had been
given free samples of milk substitutes,
bottles and teats, while they
were pregnant or in the six months
after delivery. In addition, three
health care workers in each facility
were interviewed to assess whether
the facility had received free samples
of milk substitutes or gifts from companies
involved in their production
or distribution. The results of the
survey showed that overall, 10% of
all women (range 0-26%) and 25%
of all health care facilities (range
8-50%) interviewed had been given
free samples of milk, bottle, or teats
for research purpose. Thirty percent of
health facilities had received violating
information and 11% of health care
professionals had received gifts.
These findings, which are likely
underestimating the real dimension
of the problem in the majority of
the countries, point to the extent of
violation of the WHO code by breast
milk substitutes’ manufacturers. The
consequences of these violations in
terms of increased mortality and loss
of health are staggering.
—Taylor A, Violations of the international
code of marketing of breast
milk substitutes: prevalence in four
countries. BMJ 1998; 316:1117-1122 (11
April).
This article reports on the findings
of an external audit demonstrating
multiple violations of the World
Health Organization’s code of marketing
of breast milk substitutes in
Pakistan perpetrated by Nestlé. The
discovery came after a former Nestlé
employee exposed internal documents
demonstrating that the company
offered gifts to doctors as a recompense
for promoting its products. In
addition, the company was charged
with offering free infant formulas to
mothers and health care professionals,
practices that are forbidden
under the code’s requirements. —Yamey G, Nestlé violates international
marketing code, says audit.
News. BMJ 2000; 321:8 (1 July).
The results of this study show that
bottle-fed infants have a 50%
increased risk of neurological dysfunction,
compared to breast-fed
infants. The authors propose that
the presence of longer-chain polyunsaturated
fatty acids, found in breast
milk but not in most formula-milks,
may be a factor involved in the excess
risk, since these fatty acids play a
vital role in brain development.
—Lanting CI, Fidler V, Huisman M,
Touwen BC, Boersma ER, Neurological
differences between 9-year-old children
fed breast-milk or formula-milk
as babies. Lancet 1994 Nov 12;
344(8933):1319-22.
The results of this meta-analysis,
conducted on 20 previously published
studies, show that breast-fed infants
have significantly higher levels of
cognitive development, compared
to formula-fed infants. The differences
were observed at 6-23 months and
remained thereafter. The longer the
duration of breast-feeding, the
stronger the benefits observed on
cognitive development. Premature
children were found to benefit the
most from breast-feeding.
—Anderson JW, Johnstone BM,
Remley DT, Breast-feeding and cognitive
development: a meta-analysis.
Am J Clin Nutr 1999 Oct; 70(4):525-35.
This study evaluated cognitive development
in children aged 2 through 5
fed by different modes when infants.
Breast-fed children were found to
score significantly higher in developmental
tests at all time points, compared
to bottle-fed children.
—Rogan WJ, Gladen BC, Breast-feeding
and cognitive development. Early
Hum Dev 1993 Jan; 31(3):181-93.
The results of this study show that the
improved performances in cognitive
tests observed in breast- versus bottle-
fed children early in life are maintained
throughout childhood and
young adulthood. Children who had
been breast-fed as infants had significantly
higher intelligence quotients
and scholastic performances at all
points tested, from first grade through
high school. The longer the children
were breast-fed, the better their cognitive
development and academic performances
into early adulthood.
—Horwood LJ, Fergusson DM,
Breastfeeding and later cognitive
and academic outcomes. Pediatrics
1998 Jan; 101(1):E9.
The results of this study show that
infants aged 0 to 3 months who are
breast-fed have significantly lower
rates of infections and hospitalization
compared to children who are
bottle-fed.
—Fallot ME, Boyd JL 3d, Oski FA,
Breast-feeding reduces incidence
of hospital admissions for infection
in infants. Pediatrics 1980 Jun;
65(6):1121-4.
The results of this study show that
infants who have been breast-fed for
at least 13 weeks have significantly
lower rates of gastrointestinal illnesses
and hospitalizations during the
first year of their life, compared to
those who have been bottle-fed from
birth. Breast-feeding for less than 13
weeks is not associated with reduction
of gastrointestinal disease.
—Howie PW, Forsyth JS, Ogston SA,
Clark A, Florey CD, Protective effect of
breast feeding against infection. BMJ
1990 Jan 6; 300(6716):11-6.
The results of this study, conducted
on 153 Peruvian newborns, show that
during the first 6 months of their life
infants who received other liquids in
addition to breast milk had a 2-fold
increased incidence of diarrheal
disease, compared to those who
received exclusively breast-milk.
The incidence of diarrheal disease
in infants in whom breast-feeding
was discontinued during their first
6 months of life was 4 times higher
than that of exclusively breast-fed
infants. Rates of upper and lower
respiratory infections and of skin
infections were also lower in exclusively
versus partially breast-fed
infants.
—Brown KH, Black RE, Lopez
de Romana G, Creed de
Kanashiro H, Infant-feeding
practices and their relationship
with diarrheal and other
diseases in Huascar (Lima),
Peru. Pediatrics 1989 Jan;
83(1):31-40.
The results of this study show that
children who have been exclusively
bottle-fed have an 80% increased
risk of developing diarrhea and a 70%
increased risk of developing middle
ear infections, compared to those
who have been exclusively breast-fed.
—Scariati PD, Grummer-Strawn LM,
Fein SB, A longitudinal analysis of
infant morbidity and the extent of
breastfeeding in the United States.
Pediatrics 1997 Jun; 99(6):E5.
The results of this study, conducted
on 1,058 Chinese infants, show that
those who were exclusively bottle-fed
were twice as likely to be hospitalized
for respiratory infections during their
first 18 months of life, compared
to those who were partially or exclusively
breast fed.
—Chen Y, Yu SZ, Li WX, Artificial feeding
and hospitalization in the first 18
months of life. Pediatrics 1988 Jan;
81(1):58-62. The results of this study, conducted
on 152 infants aged 1 month to 1
year admitted to a Brazilian hospital
for pneumonia and 2,391 matched
controls, show that those who have
been exclusively bottle-fed had an
overall 17-fold increased risk of being
hospitalized for this complication,
compared to those who have been
exclusively breast-fed. The risk
was particularly high for children
younger than 3 months, for whom
bottle-feeding was associated with a
61-fold increased risk of pneumonia,
and decreased down to 10 for older
children. Strikingly, the study also
found that the addition of solid foods
to the diet of infants younger than 3
months of age was associated with a
175-folds increased risk of hospitalization
for pneumonia, down to a 13-
folds increase in children of all ages.
—Cesar JA, Victora CG, Barros FC,
Santos IS, Flores JA, Impact of breast
feeding on admission for pneumonia
during postneonatal period in Brazil:
nested case-control study. BMJ 1999
May 15; 318(7194):1316-20.
The results of this study show that
children who have been partially or
exclusively bottle-fed during the first
15 weeks of life have an almost 2-fold
higher risk of developing respiratory
illness later in childhood, compared
to those who have been exclusively
breast-fed. Exclusive bottle-feeding
was also associated with significantly
higher levels of blood pressure later
in childhood, compared to breastfeeding.
In addition, the introduction
of solid foods to the diet of infants
younger than 15 weeks was found
to be associated with an over 2-fold
higher risk of wheeze during childhood,
and with significantly increased
percentage body weight and fat.
—Wilson AC, Forsyth JS, Greene SA,
Irvine L, Hau C, Howie PW, Relation of
infant diet to childhood health: seven
year follow up of cohort of children in
Dundee infant feeding study. BMJ
1998 Jan 3; 316(7124):21-5.
The results of this study show that
the introduction of milk formulas to
the diet of infants younger than 4
months is associated with a significantly
higher risk of developing asthma
and allergic disorders later in life.
In particular, children who had been
fed non-breast milk before 4 months
of age were found to have a 25%
higher risk of developing asthma and
a 30% higher risk of having a positive
skin prick test, compared to those
who had been exclusively breast-fed.
—Oddy WH, Holt PG, Sly PD, Read
AW, Landau LI, Stanley FJ, Kendall
GE, Burton PR, Association between
breast feeding and asthma in 6 year
old children: findings of a prospective
birth cohort study. BMJ 1999 Sep 25;
319(7213):815-9.
The results of this study show that
individuals who have been bottle-fed
when they were babies have more risk
factors for cardiovascular disease and
diabetes later in adulthood, compared
to those who have been breast-fed.
The study was conducted on 625
adults born in Amsterdam between
1943 and 1947. Those who had been
bottle-fed had higher plasma glucose
concentration after a glucose load
test and higher cholesterol levels,
compared to those who had been
breast-fed. These data support previous
research indicating an increased
risk of cardiovascular diseases associated
with bottle-feeding.
—Ravelli AC, van der Meulen JH,
Osmond C, Barker DJ, Bleker OP,
Infant feeding and adult glucose
tolerance, lipid profile, blood
pressure, and obesity. Arch Dis Child
2000 Mar; 82(3):248-52.
The results of this study show that
children who have received cow’s
milk-containing formulas when they
were younger than 3 months have
a 52% increased risk of developing
insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
(IDDM or Type 1 diabetes), compared
to those who have been exclusively
breast-fed. Duration of exclusive
breast-feeding for 3 months or longer
was found to be associated with a
44% reduced risk of Type 1 diabetes.
—Verge CF, Howard NJ, Irwig L,
Simpson JM, Mackerras D, Silink M,
Environmental factors in childhood
IDDM. A population-based, case-control
study. Diabetes Care 1994 Dec;
17(12):1381-9.
The results of this study show that
the introduction of supplementary
infant formulas into the diet of
infants younger than 3 months is
associated with a 52% higher risk
of developing Type 1 diabetes later
in life. Exclusive breast-feeding
during the first 2 months of life, on
the other hand, is protective, and is
associated with a 40% lower risk of
developing diabetes.
—Virtanen SM, Rasanen L, Aro A,
Ylonen K, Lounamaa R, Tuomilehto
J, Akerblom HK, Feeding in infancy
and the risk of type 1 diabetes mellitus
in Finnish children. The ‘Childhood
Diabetes in Finland’ Study Group.
Diabet Med 1992 Nov; 9(9):815-9.
The results of this study show that
the introduction of supplementary
milk feeding to the diet of infants
younger than 3 months is associated
with a 53% higher risk of developing
Type 1 diabetes, compared to the
introduction of milk formulas after
the age of 3 months.
—Hypponen E, Kenward MG, Virtanen
SM, Piitulainen A, Virta-Autio P, et
al., Infant feeding, early weight gain,
and risk of type 1 diabetes. Childhood
Diabetes in Finland (DiMe) Study
Group. Diabetes Care 1999 Dec;
22(12):1961-5.
